A Century Ago in the Land of Lion and Sun; Nowruz and Ashura

In the following series of discussions, we introduce a book titled 'Life in the Muslim East'; the author of this book is 'Pyr Pounafiden', who wrote it in Russian, and his wife 'Emma Koushiran Pounafiden' also translated it into English. The English translation of the book was published in 1911, a little over 100 years ago, and contains the author's memories from 36 years of work and life as the consul of the Kingdom of Russia in Iran and the Ottoman Empire, and his travels to various regions of Iran, 'Turkish Arabia' (Hijaz, Baghdad, Basra, and parts of Kurdish areas of Arab Iraq), and 'India'. The section on Iran is titled 'In the Land of Lion and Sun'. However, there are also references to topics related to Iran in other sections, including the status of women in Iran within the framework of Sharia and custom, as well as the general situation of Kurds who lived at that time in terms of citizenship in both the Ottoman Turkey and Iran. This work also contains photographs taken by the author and his wife from Iran, the Ottoman Empire, and India. Ashura and Nowruz A Century Ago in the Land of Lion and Sun Book: Life in the Muslim East (1911) Written by: Pyr Pounafiden Selected and Free Translation: Abbas Javadi During the mourning ceremony of 'Ashura', which is the tenth of Muharram, groups of men from each neighborhood form various processions, marching through the streets while reciting mournful and exciting poems. They wear white shirts, shave their heads, and hold a sword in their hands. 'Qama Zani' refers to the bloody ceremony during which these men, with the sword in their right hand, chant 'Ya Hussein, Ya Hussein' and strike their shaved heads until blood gushes forth, staining their bodies red. Behind them, there are men standing by to prevent the sword bearers from falling if they faint from blood loss or to intervene if they become overly excited and do not stop the sword striking. This ceremony is the largest religious mourning event for Iranians, commemorating the murder of the Prophet Muhammad's grandson, Imam Hussein, and all his family in 680 AD (over 1330 years ago) in Karbala (present-day Iraq). There are many Iranian parents who encourage their young children to also strike their heads with the sword on this day. Once, we witnessed a man from the roof of our house in Mashhad who was participating in the Ashura ceremony with his two-year-old son. We knew he loved this son immensely because several of his children had died before him. We saw that the man was calming his excited son, assuring him not to be afraid. While soothing his son, he struck the child's head with the sword, causing blood to flow. They continued the ceremony, as is customary, visiting several mosques. We saw that father again on the way back from the last mosque, carrying his son, who had apparently fainted from excessive blood loss, in his arms, yet he seemed to feel no distress, perhaps believing that by doing this, God would protect his son's life. Iranians conceal incidents such as fainting or even death due to sword striking. Some believe that the wounds from sword striking, considered a 'good deed', miraculously heal by God without the need for intervention, and even if it leads to death, the place of the deceased is certainly in paradise. The execution of the Ashura ceremony varies in each city and village, but the degree of people's fanaticism in this act is apparently greater in Mashhad and Tabriz than in other cities. Muslims in the Caucasus are also known for sword striking, and since the Russian government does not permit sword striking, they come to Tabriz or Mashhad to participate in the extensive sword striking ceremonies on Ashura. In Mashhad, we had a carriage driver from the Caucasus who every year during Ashura would ask us for permission to go to sword striking, and we would always sit behind the carriage driver after this ceremony, wandering around the city with his head bandaged. The mourning groups roam the city and visit several mosques, which also have their own ceremonies and prayers. They continuously chant poems in praise of Imam Hussein and his family, as well as curse Muawiya and his son Yazid, the first caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty, in a specific tune and in chorus. Shiites believe that after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the right to succeed him belonged to his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, not to the three caliphs before Ali, namely Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman. However, Sunnis accept the succession of the Islamic government after the Prophet as it has occurred. Ali became the fourth caliph of Islam after Uthman but was soon assassinated in a mosque in Kufa (present-day Iraq). Since then, Muslims have been divided into two groups: the Sunni majority and the Shiite minority. Shiites even believe that after Ali, his descendants, known as the 'Twelve Imams', should have led the Islamic world. Two of Ali's sons, Hasan and Hussein, were killed by Yazid. The murder of Hussein and a total of 72 members of his family in the desert of Karbala by four thousand of Yazid's soldiers was particularly catastrophic. Besides the mourning ceremonies held by people during the first ten days of Muharram, clerics narrate the entire story of the tragedy of Karbala with its dramatic details in mosques throughout the month and even afterward, artistically and dramatically recounting it tirelessly. The congregation continuously listens to a new account of this tragedy and cries and mourns each time they hear these elegies. Additionally, during the month of Muharram, scenes of the tragedy of Karbala are performed as religious plays in the streets and squares to vividly depict the memory of this tragedy before the people. In these performances, called 'Shabih', everyone plays a role. Young men dressed in women's clothing perform the roles of women. Naturally, the roles of Imam Hussein and his family members are favored by all. However, few are willing to volunteer to play the roles of Yazid or 'Shimmer', who delivered the final and fatal blow to Imam Hussein. In 1860, during the Ashura ceremony in Ardabil, a poor man who played the role of Yazid was killed by excited mourners. Even today (a century ago), those who play these negative roles tend to keep a low profile after these ceremonies to avoid being beaten. Some Shiite clerics have banned such performances, but their numbers are few, and their words have little impact. Overall, a relatively small number of people engage in sword striking or dramatize the tragedy of Karbala. However, a larger number gather in the streets and alleys on Ashura day or the day before, especially in markets and squares. They collectively recite religious and emotional poems, either removing their shirts or striking their chests with their hands or using iron chains to strike their backs until they bleed. Some, without removing their shirts, gently and safely strike their chests with their hands, repeating the religious poems and slogans of others. Others, who are more extreme, pierce their arms or chests with sharp objects like chains, locks, and even daggers, creating another horrific and bloody scene. I have seen some who had attached ten to twelve kilograms of iron objects to their skin, to the point where their skin and flesh were stretched under the weight of all that iron. Mourning for Muharram and Ashura is specific to Shiites and is centered in Iran. In Russia and India, sword striking is not permitted, but the mourning ceremonies that do take place are escorted by police to ensure the safety and comfort of the Shiite mourners. In Turkey, mourning for Ashura is a sensitive issue, as it is interpreted as a form of protest against Sunnis. For this reason, Turks do not allow mourning in the streets, but Shiites in that country can mourn in certain caravanserais or Iranian centers. Other Islamic ceremonies can be categorized into three types: first, religious ceremonies specific to Shiites (like the mourning for Ashura described above), second, ceremonies that all Muslims around the world, both Sunni and Shiite, celebrate (like Eid al-Adha and Eid al-Fitr), and third, the Nowruz holiday, which has pre-Islamic roots and is a national rather than a religious tradition. The ceremonies specific to Shiites are generally very sorrowful and lead to astonishing excesses in mourning. However, there are also a series of Islamic holidays and ceremonies that are not limited to Shiites but are prevalent in all Islamic countries. For instance, the day of the Prophet Muhammad's birth is one of those occasions that falls in the month of Rabi al-Awwal. The day of Imam Ali's birth is also in this month. However, in Iran, these days are not accompanied by special ceremonies among the people. In Tehran, the king holds a reception, and the night before, fireworks are displayed. Ramadan, the month of fasting, changes everything from social to economic life. Fasting in Islam is likely a continuation and a different form of the same fasting tradition among Jews and Christians. A person who is fasting is not allowed to eat food, drink water, or perform a series of necessary and ordinary tasks from dawn until sunset. It is even said that if dust from the road enters the body through the mouth or nose, that too invalidates the fast. Fasting, especially during the long summer days, is very difficult. However, some, like girls up to nine years old and boys up to fourteen years old, travelers, and women who are menstruating are exempt from fasting. Some use these excuses to avoid fasting. For example, if someone goes on a journey and their distance is longer than four 'farsakh' (about 14 kilometers), fasting is not obligatory for them. Or illness can be a reason to refrain from fasting. For this reason, during Ramadan, travel increases compared to other months, and some obtain a 'fatwa' from clerics stating that due to their illness, they do not need to fast. Some appear to fast but secretly eat food. If they are seen in public, it may lead to severe punishments. In 1891, two men were caught eating during the fast and were nailed to the wall by their ears, while people passed by for hours, spitting on them. Working during the month of fasting is not easy. Of course, wealthy people sleep until noon to feel less hunger and thirst. In the afternoons, they pretend to work, but they are often weak and their thoughts are elsewhere. Markets are closed during the day. It seems that everyone, rich and poor, is waiting for the sound of the cannon that announces sunset and the time for 'iftar', the end of the fast. After iftar, life returns to homes, alleys, and markets. During Ramadan, Muslims read the Quran more than in other months. During this month, it was very interesting for us to look from the roof into the yards of the neighbors. They would spread a carpet by the stream. Dinner was laid out on a tray, cold water and syrup were at hand, and the hookah was lit. The host and his friends would sit cross-legged, waiting, with their shoes lined up beside the carpet. As soon as the sound of the iftar cannon was heard, they would take a puff from the hookah, drink a couple of sips of water and syrup, and then, after a sigh of relief, they would start eating dinner. Eid al-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan. On this day, fasting is forbidden. Eid al-Fitr, along with Eid al-Adha, which commemorates the memory of Prophet Ibrahim and his son Ismail, are two important holidays in Islamic countries. In Iran, these two holidays are days of joy and celebration, but besides sacrificing cows and sheep on Eid al-Adha and distributing the meat, nothing special happens on these days. During Eid al-Adha, those who have sufficient financial means sacrifice a sheep or even a cow and distribute the meat among neighbors and the poor. When we were in Mashhad, a few weeks before Eid al-Adha, a camel was paraded in the city, which was said to be the 'king's camel', sent every year by the king for sacrifice and distribution among the people in Mashhad. The camel was adorned with small mirrors and white ribbons and paraded through the streets accompanied by music and drums while collecting money. The money was taken by those who were supposed to slaughter the camel. However, it was said that on Eid al-Adha, not that camel, but an old and thin camel was chosen for sacrifice to distribute among the people. Nowruz, the most joyful and happiest celebration of Iranians, is the New Year or 'Nowruz' festival, a type of which is also celebrated among Armenians called 'Nava-Sart' and by Jews as well. According to ancient Iranian legends, this celebration dates back to the fourth mythical king of Iran, Jamshid, whose reign, according to these legends, lasted seven hundred years. Iranians claim that to refute the Sunni claim that Nowruz is a continuation of a fire-worshipping or idol-worshipping tradition, Nowruz is celebrated to mark the beginning of the creation of the world.