Developments in Internet Access in Iran During Four U.S. Presidential Terms

The official entry of the internet into Iran dates back to 1993 when the Institute for Research in Theoretical Physics and Mathematics (IPM), with the support of the United Nations, established Iran's first internet connection. Since then, free internet access for Iranians has always faced challenges. On the other hand, the foreign policy of U.S. administrations towards the Islamic Republic has also influenced the manner and extent of Iran's internet access during the presidencies of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, and Joe Biden. The new section of 'Layer Seven' examines the issue of internet access from the perspective of Washington's sanctions against the Islamic Republic and the support provided by the U.S. in countering filtering and enabling the Iranian people to access VPNs. The first U.S. sanctions against Iran began in 1979 following the occupation of the U.S. embassy in Tehran and the hostage-taking of 52 diplomats and American citizens by 'students following the line of Imam.' However, targeted sanctions against the Islamic Republic during Barack Obama's administration (2008-2016) were imposed in response to Iran's nuclear program, the Islamic Republic's regional policy support, and human rights issues; these sanctions were extensive and diverse, ultimately leading to the signing of the nuclear agreement known as the JCPOA in 2015. Nevertheless, the Obama administration had a dual policy regarding the internet and digital access in Iran. On one hand, the U.S. pursued severe sanctions against Iran during Obama's presidency, but on the other hand, efforts were made to increase the Iranian people's access to information and free communication. During Obama's tenure, the U.S. Treasury Department provided specific exemptions for the export of software and communication services to Iran. These exemptions allowed American technology companies to offer services such as social networks, messaging apps, and communication software to Iranians. The aim of these exemptions was to provide the Iranian people with tools for free and secure communication. The Obama administration also sought to provide anti-filtering and VPN tools to the Iranian people. These tools relatively helped Iranian users bypass internet restrictions imposed by the Iranian government and access free information sites and resources to some extent. The D-1 general license is issued by the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) of the U.S. Treasury Department. This license, within the framework of economic sanctions against Iran, allows American individuals and companies to provide certain personal communication-related services, software, and hardware to Iranian citizens. During Barack Obama's presidency, the U.S. government utilized these types of licenses to support the Iranian people's access to the internet and free communication technologies; licenses specifically aimed at supporting circumvention tools, such as VPNs and other anti-censorship technologies. Following the D-1 general license, the D-2 general license was issued in October 2022 by the U.S. Office of Foreign Assets Control to allow American companies and entities to send communication technologies and internet tools, such as VPNs and anti-censorship tools, to countries like Iran and assist people in bypassing filtering, thereby facilitating access to free internet. Despite the fact that general licenses allowed technology companies to offer some services and products to Iran, legal complexities and lack of clarity in regulations led many companies to refrain from providing services to Iranian users. These companies were often concerned that if they mistakenly used these licenses, they would face heavy fines or other sanctions. Companies like Google, Apple, and Microsoft were reluctant to provide their infrastructure or services to Iranian users due to concerns about potential reactions from the U.S. government and the legal costs involved. Some tools and services that were provided to Iranians under these licenses faced issues due to the lack of official support and failure to provide security updates. This situation caused such tools to become ineffective over time, or users became vulnerable to security threats. The first term of Donald Trump's presidency (2017 to 2021) also had diverse policies regarding the Iranian people's access to free internet, but Trump's approach was more focused on maximum pressure to weaken the Islamic Republic. These pressures were aimed at supporting civil society and the Iranian people in accessing free internet and communications. Overall, the Trump administration sought to help the Iranian people bypass the Islamic Republic's internet restrictions by imposing extensive sanctions against governmental and security institutions while also supporting the provision of circumvention tools. The policies adopted during Trump's administration helped the Iranian people utilize some anti-censorship tools and benefit from free internet during times when the Iranian government restricted or cut off internet access. Ultimately, however, extensive sanctions and maximum pressure policies limited Iran's access to more advanced communication technologies, and American technology companies sometimes faced legal challenges in providing services to Iran. Towards the end of Trump's presidency, the U.S. government issued licenses allowing technology companies to send communication software, VPN tools, and messaging platforms to Iran. These aids were aimed at facilitating access to free internet and supporting civil activities. The Trump administration also imposed additional sanctions against certain Iranian entities that played a role in restricting internet access and implementing filtering. These policies indirectly contributed to increasing access to anti-censorship tools and lifting filtering. The Iranian Communications Infrastructure Company, Arvan Cloud, MobinNet (a provider of wireless internet services and one of Iran's largest ISPs), Hamrah-e-Aval and Irancell, and the National Cyberspace Center were sanctioned during Trump's term for supporting the Islamic Republic's restrictive policies and filtering. During this period, some large technology companies that indirectly provided services to Iran, such as cloud service providers, internet services, and global platforms, faced significant pressure to cut ties with Iran. These sanctions caused many large and small technology companies to refrain from continuing their cooperation with Iran due to fears of economic penalties. With the arrival of Joe Biden's administration (2021 to present), some of Trump's oil sanctions against Tehran were overlooked; however, in terms of overall policies against the Iranian government's nuclear program, Biden also followed in Trump's footsteps. This issue had a direct impact on the status of the Iranian people's access to online applications and software. The Biden administration, similar to previous U.S. administrations, has taken some significant actions regarding the Iranian people's access to free internet and lifting internet restrictions in Iran, including facilitating access to certain anti-censorship technologies, supporting secure communication technologies, and increasing support for anti-censorship technologies for Iranians. One of the key objectives of the Biden administration's technology sanctions was to limit the Islamic Republic's access to technologies that enable the government to impose more surveillance and restrictions, particularly regarding human rights, especially freedom of expression and free access to information. These sanctions specifically targeted companies and individuals that assisted the Iranian government in developing surveillance tools, filtering, and suppressing citizens in the digital space; companies like 'Doran' and 'Yaftar' and individuals like 'Mohammad Javad Azari Jahromi,' the former Minister of Communications. These sanctions significantly raised the cost of participation in digital repression for domestic technology companies and government officials. The Islamic Republic has always sought to limit the people's access to free internet and localize it in the form of a national information network, and despite sanctions, it is moving towards creating an intranet instead of a global internet. However, some digital rights activists believe that certain infrastructural sanctions have accelerated the Islamic Republic's movement towards a national internet, and with limited access for Iranian users to popular software and communication tools like Google Play, App Store, and Microsoft services, they have been forced to use local tools with lower security and quality, overall advancing the Islamic Republic's policies in establishing the national information network or intranet.