Edmund Burke: Religious Tolerance and Civil Society

The aim of introducing Western intellectuals who have played a significant role in the historical development of societies around the world is not to promote a specific theory, but rather to demonstrate through the introduction of various thoughts and perceptions regarding social events and truths that societies can only grow when diverse ideas and mindsets collide and lead to social growth and development. Edmund Burke is seen by some politicians as a model for today's conservatives. However, a look at Burke's thoughts reveals that he sought freedoms in his time that differ significantly from the notions of today's extreme conservatives. Burke was born in 1729 in Dublin and is considered one of the Enlightenment thinkers of his era. His father was a successful Catholic lawyer who converted to Protestantism. Burke grew up in a Catholic environment and was influenced by both Christian religions, Catholicism and Protestantism. He initially studied history and literature and later completed his legal education in London. Burke was a member of the Whig Party, which was originally opposed to the Conservative Tory Party. About sixty years after his death, the Whig Party formed a new political alliance with the Liberals. In 1748, Burke published a magazine called The Reformer, which had 13 issues. In that magazine, he wrote about the relationship between politics and aesthetics. Thirty years later, in 1778, Burke, as a politician, introduced a bill on religious tolerance to the House of Commons. According to Burke, the government should be based on Christian principles, not just rationality. He particularly opposed intellectuals like Lord Bolingbroke, who claimed that social and political life should be based on rationality. Burke believed that rationality has limits and is not boundless. Despite being one of the Enlightenment thinkers, Burke did not agree with the criticisms of another Enlightenment philosopher, Voltaire, and completely rejected the French philosopher's criticisms of Catholicism, insisting on the boundaries of a philosophy entirely based on rationality. He was especially opposed to atheism and disbelief in God, arguing that atheism gives a sense of superiority to humans, which he considered dangerous. This sense of superiority among individuals could lead to the decay and destruction of a country and the extinction of its institutions. In other words, he believed that undermining Christianity would lead to the downfall of a nation. Therefore, he was concerned about the loss of religion and the destruction of the cultural roots of people in a society that was becoming increasingly modern, which terrified him. Burke was also the founder of a literary society called the "Literary Club" and became the publisher of the new artistic and political magazine of this literary association in 1758. Following that, he initially served as the secretary to Lord Rockingham in Parliament and soon became a representative of the Whig Party, which was considered a liberal party at that time, in the House of Commons. After he became a member of the House of Commons, he wrote fewer literary and aesthetic articles and more political ones. Burke opposed the reduction of the rights of the House of Commons and spoke of the balance of power among institutions. He was one of the intellectuals who warned in various speeches in 1774 and 1775 about the American independence movement and criticized the policies of the English court and the "Crown," but the English government officials did not pay attention to his speeches, and eventually, the conflict between England and America led to the signing of the Declaration of Independence of the United States in 1776. His historical and political experience as someone who grew up in a Catholic and Protestant social environment led to his opposition to revolutionary movements. He witnessed the popular uprisings in England in 1778. A brief look at the history of that time clarifies the reasons for Edmund Burke's fear of revolutions: the government of George III granted civil rights and land ownership to English Catholics. This government also allowed Catholics to join the English army. These new laws of equality for Catholics, which were enacted simultaneously with the American independence revolution, led to violent uprisings by English Protestants against Catholics. Initially, more than 40 to 60 thousand people held a protest march in front of the Parliament building, which resulted in the burning of Catholic churches and homes. This experience of destructive and foundational movements led Burke to become a staunch opponent of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1799. Burke believed that after the French Revolution, a destructive and violent spirit was encouraged and strengthened in French society. Burke, who died in 1797, was not only opposed to the French Revolution but also historically opposed to the Glorious Revolution of England in 1688. Although historians have described and praised this revolution as bloodless and considered it a precursor to constitutional monarchy and one of the early events of new democracies, Burke had another reason for opposing this revolution: the reduction of religious tolerance. It is a historical fact that after the Glorious Revolution of England in 1688, the persecution of Catholics in England intensified, and severe discrimination against Catholics lasted for a century. This was a reason for Burke to oppose this Glorious Revolution of England. As a reformist conservative liberal politician, he was also a staunch opponent of bribery and corruption in his time. For example, at a time when Warren Hastings, the ruler of the East India Company, was showcasing and boasting about his power in the world, Burke was one of the critics of the politics and economics of large companies, particularly opposing the colonial power policies in India. Burke referred to that policy as "Indianness." He was both a critic of the Jacobin policies during the Reign of Terror and the guillotine in the French Revolution and a critic of the ostentation of colonial policies, considering both as disgraceful and major crimes. Burke witnessed the colonial wars between England and France and England's success in Africa and India, and he opposed exploitation, forced labor, impatience, and especially religious fanaticism. Burke's vision of civil society states that society should "give alms to the poor, defend the weak, guide the ignorant, provide work for the hardworking, comfort those in need of encouragement, feed the needy, support the elderly, give faith to the lost, give hope to the hopeless, and donate to humanity." This sentence alone clearly shows that Burke was a believing and religious human being. He was a conservative who dreamed of achieving a liberal and free society. He defended a regulated system on one hand and a system based on stable moral values on the other. The country Burke envisioned was not established based on individual will but rather based on relationships that have intertwined and grown over centuries and generations, along with various opinions and perceptions. Of course, in Burke's view, the laws of a country should be influenced by divine laws. Civil society originates from the actions, behaviors, and initiatives of individuals who seek harmony and balance among the population of a country. According to Burke, the lack of deep thinking, inquiry, and discussion among members of society leads to foolish and unreasonable behavior. However, wise and prudent individuals will strive to demonstrate correct actions. Civil society yields fruitful and productive results when networks of various social groups connect with each other. Burke believed that the administrative system of England should treat India well. For example, England should not disrupt the harmony and compatibility of social life within other societies like India but should protect it: social structures should grow, not be destroyed and rebuilt. Burke believed that society and history would not change through the political will of an individual, but only through the coordination and cooperation of social networks can social changes occur. For this reason, he opposed revolutions. He even opposed the thoughts of John Locke, who believed that society should primarily be established based on laws and independent individuals. Edmund Burke thought that as long as thinkers and politicians of a society pursued the idea that society should be built on a theory and ideology, societies would remain dysfunctional. Burke reflected on the idea that societies like England are dependent on the historical and cultural standards that have contributed to the growth of that society. Burke's conservatism can be seen as a positive aspect in his positive goals of creating harmony and coordination in society rather than its revolutionary destruction. He always sought to reform dangers that exacerbate social discord and incite division and strife in society. He, of course, operated from the premise that if the foundations of a healthy and free system are in place, that system is reformable. Burke was, in fact, a liberal conservative and believed that peace, trade, and commerce are, in essence, barriers to force, oppression, and aggression. As much as Burke had a strong interest in America's independence from England, he was also averse to war.